Aircraft Performance Essay | 1 Introduction To Aircraft Performance 221 개의 자세한 답변

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Aircraft Performance – Term Paper

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주제에 대한 기사 평가 aircraft performance essay

• Author: Brian Kish
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• Date Published: 2019. 5. 25.
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What is aircraft performance?

Performance is a term used to describe the ability of an aircraft to accomplish certain things that make it useful for certain purposes. For example, the ability of an aircraft to land and take off in a very short distance is an important factor to the pilot who operates in and out of short, unimproved airfields.

How can aircraft improve performance?

How would you describe an aircraft?

An aircraft is a vehicle or machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines.

What is aircraft climb performance?

Climb performance is directly dependent upon the ability to produce either excess thrust or excess power. Earlier in the book it was shown that an increase in weight, an increase in altitude, lowering the landing gear, or lowering the flaps all decrease both excess thrust and excess power for all aircraft.

How is aircraft performance affected by altitude?

Whether due to high altitude, high temperature, or both, reduced air density (reported in terms of density altitude) adversely affects aerodynamic performance and decreases the engine’s horsepower output. Takeoff distance, power available (in normally aspirated engines), and climb rate are all adversely affected.

How is aircraft performance calculated?

How does pressure affect aircraft performance?

As pressure decreases, the air becomes less dense or thinner. This is the equivalent of being at a higher altitude and is referred to as density altitude. As pressure decreases, density altitude increases and has a pronounced effect on aircraft performance.

What are factors that affect takeoff performance?

What is aircraft in simple words?

Definition of aircraft

: a vehicle (such as an airplane or balloon) for traveling through the air.

Why is the airplane important?

From its first successful flight to its ability to fly faster than the speed of sound, the airplane has made the world accessible to everyone. Speaking only of the United States, in its early years the airplane became a tool that brought this huge country together.

What is an airplane in simple terms?

: an aircraft with wings which do not move, that is heavier than air, is driven by a propeller or jet engine, and is supported by the action of the air against its wings. More from Merriam-Webster on airplane.

What affects climb performance?

The climb performance of an aircraft is influenced by factors like: the amount of applied power, type of propeller, airspeed, drag in the form of flaps or landing gear and weight.

What is improved climb performance?

• Improved Climb is a tool available to the. Performance Engineer to optimize the aircraft takeoff performance resulting in increased takeoff weights. • Improved Climb is a tool available to the. Performance Engineer to optimize the aircraft takeoff performance resulting in increased takeoff weights.

How does wind affect aircraft performance?

Passengers tend to worry about strong winds during flight, but the reality is that wind speed during cruise flight has little or no effect on a plane. The only thing a strong wind may do is affect the length of time the flight will take. If you have a strong headwind, it can slow down a flight.

How does pressure affect aircraft performance?

As pressure decreases, the air becomes less dense or thinner. This is the equivalent of being at a higher altitude and is referred to as density altitude. As pressure decreases, density altitude increases and has a pronounced effect on aircraft performance.

How do I become an aircraft performance engineer?

Engineering Degree in Flight Physics and experience working for an Airline company. Proven experience in Airline operations (Aircraft Operations, Fleet Management, Network Optimization). Strong knowledge in Aircraft Performance (Aircraft & Engine Performance, Flight Physics & Mechanics, Aerodynamics) is key.

How does weight affect aircraft performance?

Excessive weight reduces the flight performance in almost every respect. The most important performance deficiencies of an overloaded aircraft are: Higher takeoff speed. Longer takeoff run.

How does wind affect aircraft performance?

Passengers tend to worry about strong winds during flight, but the reality is that wind speed during cruise flight has little or no effect on a plane. The only thing a strong wind may do is affect the length of time the flight will take. If you have a strong headwind, it can slow down a flight.

Aircraft Performance

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Wikipedia

Vehicle or machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air

For the railway station in Melbourne, see Aircraft railway station

An aircraft is a vehicle or machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil,[2] or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines. Common examples of aircraft include airplanes, helicopters, airships (including blimps), gliders, paramotors, and hot air balloons.[3]

The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation. The science of aviation, including designing and building aircraft, is called aeronautics. Crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as lift type, aircraft propulsion, usage and others.

History [ edit ]

Flying model craft and stories of manned flight go back many centuries; however, the first manned ascent — and safe descent — in modern times took place by larger hot-air balloons developed in the 18th century. Each of the two World Wars led to great technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras:

Methods of lift [ edit ]

Lighter than air – aerostats [ edit ]

Aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large cells or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, it adds up to the same weight as the air that the craft displaces.

Small hot-air balloons, called sky lanterns, were first invented in ancient China prior to the 3rd century BC and used primarily in cultural celebrations, and were only the second type of aircraft to fly, the first being kites, which were first invented in ancient China over two thousand years ago. (See Han Dynasty)

A balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs — usually fixed-wing.[4][5][6][7][8][9] In 1919, Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to “ships of the air,” with smaller passenger types as “Air yachts.”[10] In the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as “ships of the air” or “flying-ships”.[11][12] — though none had yet been built. The advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by a rigid outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced, the Zeppelins being the largest and most famous. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, so “airship” came to be synonymous with these aircraft. Then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a “balloon” is an unpowered aerostat and an “airship” is a powered one.

A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible. Sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship (which may then be rigid or non-rigid). Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back. These soon became known as blimps. During World War II, this shape was widely adopted for tethered balloons; in windy weather, this both reduces the strain on the tether and stabilizes the balloon. The nickname blimp was adopted along with the shape. In modern times, any small dirigible or airship is called a blimp, though a blimp may be unpowered as well as powered.

Heavier-than-air – aerodynes [ edit ]

Heavier-than-air aircraft, such as airplanes, must find some way to push air or gas downwards so that a reaction occurs (by Newton’s laws of motion) to push the aircraft upwards. This dynamic movement through the air is the origin of the term. There are two ways to produce dynamic upthrust — aerodynamic lift, and powered lift in the form of engine thrust.

Aerodynamic lift involving wings is the most common, with fixed-wing aircraft being kept in the air by the forward movement of wings, and rotorcraft by spinning wing-shaped rotors sometimes called rotary wings. A wing is a flat, horizontal surface, usually shaped in cross-section as an aerofoil. To fly, air must flow over the wing and generate lift. A flexible wing is a wing made of fabric or thin sheet material, often stretched over a rigid frame. A kite is tethered to the ground and relies on the speed of the wind over its wings, which may be flexible or rigid, fixed, or rotary.

With powered lift, the aircraft directs its engine thrust vertically downward. V/STOL aircraft, such as the Harrier Jump Jet and Lockheed Martin F-35B take off and land vertically using powered lift and transfer to aerodynamic lift in steady flight.

A pure rocket is not usually regarded as an aerodyne because it does not depend on the air for its lift (and can even fly into space); however, many aerodynamic lift vehicles have been powered or assisted by rocket motors. Rocket-powered missiles that obtain aerodynamic lift at very high speed due to airflow over their bodies are a marginal case.

The forerunner of the fixed-wing aircraft is the kite. Whereas a fixed-wing aircraft relies on its forward speed to create airflow over the wings, a kite is tethered to the ground and relies on the wind blowing over its wings to provide lift. Kites were the first kind of aircraft to fly and were invented in China around 500 BC. Much aerodynamic research was done with kites before test aircraft, wind tunnels, and computer modelling programs became available.

The first heavier-than-air craft capable of controlled free-flight were gliders. A glider designed by George Cayley carried out the first true manned, controlled flight in 1853.

The practical, powered, fixed-wing aircraft (the airplane or aeroplane) was invented by Wilbur and Orville Wright. Besides the method of propulsion, fixed-wing aircraft are in general characterized by their wing configuration. The most important wing characteristics are:

Number of wings — monoplane, biplane, etc.

Wing support — Braced or cantilever, rigid, or flexible.

Wing planform — including aspect ratio, angle of sweep, and any variations along the span (including the important class of delta wings).

Location of the horizontal stabilizer, if any.

Dihedral angle — positive, zero, or negative (anhedral).

A variable geometry aircraft can change its wing configuration during flight.

A flying wing has no fuselage, though it may have small blisters or pods. The opposite of this is a lifting body, which has no wings, though it may have small stabilizing and control surfaces.

Wing-in-ground-effect vehicles are generally not considered aircraft.[13] They “fly” efficiently close to the surface of the ground or water, like conventional aircraft during takeoff. An example is the Russian ekranoplan nicknamed the “Caspian Sea Monster”. Man-powered aircraft also rely on ground effect to remain airborne with minimal pilot power, but this is only because they are so underpowered—in fact, the airframe is capable of flying higher.

Aircraft parked on the ground in Afghanistan

Rotorcraft [ edit ]

Rotorcraft, or rotary-wing aircraft, use a spinning rotor with aerofoil section blades (a rotary wing) to provide lift. Types include helicopters, autogyros, and various hybrids such as gyrodynes and compound rotorcraft.

Helicopters have a rotor turned by an engine-driven shaft. The rotor pushes air downward to create lift. By tilting the rotor forward, the downward flow is tilted backward, producing thrust for forward flight. Some helicopters have more than one rotor and a few have rotors turned by gas jets at the tips.

Autogyros have unpowered rotors, with a separate power plant to provide thrust. The rotor is tilted backward. As the autogyro moves forward, air blows upward across the rotor, making it spin. This spinning increases the speed of airflow over the rotor, to provide lift. Rotor kites are unpowered autogyros, which are towed to give them forward speed or tethered to a static anchor in high-wind for kited flight.

Cyclogyros rotate their wings about a horizontal axis.

Compound rotorcraft have wings that provide some or all of the lift in forward flight. They are nowadays classified as powered lift types and not as rotorcraft. Tiltrotor aircraft (such as the Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey), tiltwing, tail-sitter, and coleopter aircraft have their rotors/propellers horizontal for vertical flight and vertical for forward flight.

Other methods of lift [ edit ]

X-24B lifting body

Size and speed extremes [ edit ]

Size [ edit ]

The smallest aircraft are toys/recreational items, and nano aircraft.

The largest aircraft by dimensions and volume (as of 2016) is the 302 ft (92 m) long British Airlander 10, a hybrid blimp, with helicopter and fixed-wing features, and reportedly capable of speeds up to 90 mph (140 km/h; 78 kn), and an airborne endurance of two weeks with a payload of up to 22,050 lb (10,000 kg).[14][15][16]

The largest aircraft by weight and largest regular fixed-wing aircraft ever built, as of 2016 , is the Antonov An-225 Mriya. That Ukrainian-built six-engine Russian transport of the 1980s is 84 m (276 ft) long, with an 88 m (289 ft) wingspan. It holds the world payload record, after transporting 428,834 lb (194,516 kg) of goods, and has recently flown 100 t (220,000 lb) loads commercially. With a maximum loaded weight of 550–700 t (1,210,000–1,540,000 lb), it is also the heaviest aircraft built to date. It can cruise at 500 mph (800 km/h; 430 kn).[17][18][19][20][21]

The largest military airplanes are the Ukrainian Antonov An-124 Ruslan (world’s second-largest airplane, also used as a civilian transport),[22] and American Lockheed C-5 Galaxy transport, weighing, loaded, over 380 t (840,000 lb).[21][23] The 8-engine, piston/propeller Hughes H-4 Hercules “Spruce Goose” — an American World War II wooden flying boat transport with a greater wingspan (94m/260ft) than any current aircraft and a tail height equal to the tallest (Airbus A380-800 at 24.1m/78ft) — flew only one short hop in the late 1940s and never flew out of ground effect.[21]

The largest civilian airplanes, apart from the above-noted An-225 and An-124, are the Airbus Beluga cargo transport derivative of the Airbus A300 jet airliner, the Boeing Dreamlifter cargo transport derivative of the Boeing 747 jet airliner/transport (the 747-200B was, at its creation in the 1960s, the heaviest aircraft ever built, with a maximum weight of over 400 t (880,000 lb)),[23] and the double-decker Airbus A380 “super-jumbo” jet airliner (the world’s largest passenger airliner).[21][24]

Speeds [ edit ]

The fastest recorded powered aircraft flight and fastest recorded aircraft flight of an air-breathing powered aircraft was of the NASA X-43A Pegasus, a scramjet-powered, hypersonic, lifting body experimental research aircraft, at Mach 9.6, exactly 3,292.8 m/s (11,854 km/h; 6,400.7 kn; 7,366 mph). The X-43A set that new mark, and broke its own world record of Mach 6.3, exactly 2,160.9 m/s (7,779 km/h; 4,200.5 kn; 4,834 mph), set in March 2004, on its third and final flight on 16 November 2004.[25][26]

Prior to the X-43A, the fastest recorded powered airplane flight (and still the record for the fastest manned, powered airplane / fastest manned, non-spacecraft aircraft) was of the North American X-15A-2, rocket-powered airplane at Mach 6.72, or 2,304.96 m/s (8,297.9 km/h; 4,480.48 kn; 5,156.0 mph), on 3 October 1967. On one flight it reached an altitude of 354,300 ft (108,000 m).[27][28][29]

The fastest known, production aircraft (other than rockets and missiles) currently or formerly operational (as of 2016) are:

The fastest fixed-wing aircraft, and fastest glider, is the Space Shuttle, a rocket-glider hybrid, which has re-entered the atmosphere as a fixed-wing glider at more than Mach 25, equal to 8,575 m/s (30,870 km/h; 16,668 kn; 19,180 mph). [27] [30]

The fastest military airplane ever built: Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, a U.S. reconnaissance jet fixed-wing aircraft, known to fly beyond Mach 3.3, equal to 1,131.9 m/s (4,075 km/h; 2,200.2 kn; 2,532 mph). On 28 July 1976, an SR-71 set the record for the fastest and highest-flying operational aircraft with an absolute speed record of 2,193 mph (3,529 km/h; 1,906 kn; 980 m/s) and an absolute altitude record of 85,068 ft (25,929 m). At its retirement in January 1990, it was the fastest air-breathing aircraft / fastest jet aircraft in the world, a record still standing as of August 2016 .[27][31][32][33][34][35]

Note: Some sources refer to the above-mentioned X-15 as the “fastest military airplane” because it was partly a project of the U.S. Navy and Air Force; however, the X-15 was not used in non-experimental actual military operations.[29]

Propulsion [ edit ]

Unpowered aircraft [ edit ]

Gliders are heavier-than-air aircraft that do not employ propulsion once airborne. Take-off may be by launching forward and downward from a high location, or by pulling into the air on a tow-line, either by a ground-based winch or vehicle, or by a powered “tug” aircraft. For a glider to maintain its forward air speed and lift, it must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground). Many gliders can “soar”, i.e., gain height from updrafts such as thermal currents. The first practical, controllable example was designed and built by the British scientist and pioneer George Cayley, whom many recognise as the first aeronautical engineer. Common examples of gliders are sailplanes, hang gliders and paragliders.

Balloons drift with the wind, though normally the pilot can control the altitude, either by heating the air or by releasing ballast, giving some directional control (since the wind direction changes with altitude). A wing-shaped hybrid balloon can glide directionally when rising or falling; but a spherically shaped balloon does not have such directional control.

Kites are aircraft[43] that are tethered to the ground or other object (fixed or mobile) that maintains tension in the tether or kite line; they rely on virtual or real wind blowing over and under them to generate lift and drag. Kytoons are balloon-kite hybrids that are shaped and tethered to obtain kiting deflections, and can be lighter-than-air, neutrally buoyant, or heavier-than-air.

Powered aircraft [ edit ]

Powered aircraft have one or more onboard sources of mechanical power, typically aircraft engines although rubber and manpower have also been used. Most aircraft engines are either lightweight reciprocating engines or gas turbines. Engine fuel is stored in tanks, usually in the wings but larger aircraft also have additional fuel tanks in the fuselage.

Propeller aircraft [ edit ]

Propeller aircraft use one or more propellers (airscrews) to create thrust in a forward direction. The propeller is usually mounted in front of the power source in tractor configuration but can be mounted behind in pusher configuration. Variations of propeller layout include contra-rotating propellers and ducted fans.

Many kinds of power plant have been used to drive propellers. Early airships used man power or steam engines. The more practical internal combustion piston engine was used for virtually all fixed-wing aircraft until World War II and is still used in many smaller aircraft. Some types use turbine engines to drive a propeller in the form of a turboprop or propfan. Human-powered flight has been achieved, but has not become a practical means of transport. Unmanned aircraft and models have also used power sources such as electric motors and rubber bands.

Jet aircraft [ edit ]

Jet aircraft use airbreathing jet engines, which take in air, burn fuel with it in a combustion chamber, and accelerate the exhaust rearwards to provide thrust.

Different jet engine configurations include the turbojet and turbofan, sometimes with the addition of an afterburner. Those with no rotating turbomachinery include the pulsejet and ramjet. These mechanically simple engines produce no thrust when stationary, so the aircraft must be launched to flying speed using a catapult, like the V-1 flying bomb, or a rocket, for example. Other engine types include the motorjet and the dual-cycle Pratt & Whitney J58.

Compared to engines using propellers, jet engines can provide much higher thrust, higher speeds and, above about 40,000 ft (12,000 m), greater efficiency.[44] They are also much more fuel-efficient than rockets. As a consequence nearly all large, high-speed or high-altitude aircraft use jet engines.

Rotorcraft [ edit ]

Some rotorcraft, such as helicopters, have a powered rotary wing or rotor, where the rotor disc can be angled slightly forward so that a proportion of its lift is directed forwards. The rotor may, like a propeller, be powered by a variety of methods such as a piston engine or turbine. Experiments have also used jet nozzles at the rotor blade tips.

Other types of powered aircraft [ edit ]

Rocket-powered aircraft have occasionally been experimented with, and the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet fighter even saw action in the Second World War. Since then, they have been restricted to research aircraft, such as the North American X-15, which traveled up into space where air-breathing engines cannot work (rockets carry their own oxidant). Rockets have more often been used as a supplement to the main power plant, typically for the rocket-assisted take off of heavily loaded aircraft, but also to provide high-speed dash capability in some hybrid designs such as the Saunders-Roe SR.53.

have occasionally been experimented with, and the Messerschmitt Me 163 fighter even saw action in the Second World War. Since then, they have been restricted to research aircraft, such as the North American X-15, which traveled up into space where air-breathing engines cannot work (rockets carry their own oxidant). Rockets have more often been used as a supplement to the main power plant, typically for the rocket-assisted take off of heavily loaded aircraft, but also to provide high-speed dash capability in some hybrid designs such as the Saunders-Roe SR.53. The ornithopter obtains thrust by flapping its wings. It has found practical use in a model hawk used to freeze prey animals into stillness so that they can be captured, and in toy birds.

Design and construction [ edit ]

Aircraft are designed according to many factors such as customer and manufacturer demand, safety protocols and physical and economic constraints. For many types of aircraft the design process is regulated by national airworthiness authorities.

The key parts of an aircraft are generally divided into three categories:

The structure comprises the main load-bearing elements and associated equipment.

comprises the main load-bearing elements and associated equipment. The propulsion system (if it is powered) comprises the power source and associated equipment, as described above.

(if it is powered) comprises the power source and associated equipment, as described above. The avionics comprise the control, navigation and communication systems, usually electrical in nature.

Structure [ edit ]

The approach to structural design varies widely between different types of aircraft. Some, such as paragliders, comprise only flexible materials that act in tension and rely on aerodynamic pressure to hold their shape. A balloon similarly relies on internal gas pressure, but may have a rigid basket or gondola slung below it to carry its payload. Early aircraft, including airships, often employed flexible doped aircraft fabric covering to give a reasonably smooth aeroshell stretched over a rigid frame. Later aircraft employed semi-monocoque techniques, where the skin of the aircraft is stiff enough to share much of the flight loads. In a true monocoque design there is no internal structure left. With the recent emphasis on sustainability hemp has picked up some attention, having a way smaller carbon foot print and 10 times stronger than steel, hemp could become the standard of manufacturing in the future. [45]

The key structural parts of an aircraft depend on what type it is.

Aerostats [ edit ]

Lighter-than-air types are characterised by one or more gasbags, typically with a supporting structure of flexible cables or a rigid framework called its hull. Other elements such as engines or a gondola may also be attached to the supporting structure.

Aerodynes [ edit ]

Heavier-than-air types are characterised by one or more wings and a central fuselage. The fuselage typically also carries a tail or empennage for stability and control, and an undercarriage for takeoff and landing. Engines may be located on the fuselage or wings. On a fixed-wing aircraft the wings are rigidly attached to the fuselage, while on a rotorcraft the wings are attached to a rotating vertical shaft. Smaller designs sometimes use flexible materials for part or all of the structure, held in place either by a rigid frame or by air pressure. The fixed parts of the structure comprise the airframe.

Avionics [ edit ]

The avionics comprise the aircraft flight control systems and related equipment, including the cockpit instrumentation, navigation, radar, monitoring, and communications systems.

Flight characteristics [ edit ]

Flight envelope [ edit ]

The flight envelope of an aircraft refers to its approved design capabilities in terms of airspeed, load factor and altitude.[46][47] The term can also refer to other assessments of aircraft performance such as maneuverability. When an aircraft is abused, for instance by diving it at too-high a speed, it is said to be flown outside the envelope, something considered foolhardy since it has been taken beyond the design limits which have been established by the manufacturer. Going beyond the envelope may have a known outcome such as flutter or entry to a non-recoverable spin (possible reasons for the boundary).

Range [ edit ]

The Boeing 777-200LR is one of the longest-range airliners, capable of flights of more than halfway around the world.

The range is the distance an aircraft can fly between takeoff and landing, as limited by the time it can remain airborne.

For a powered aircraft the time limit is determined by the fuel load and rate of consumption.

For an unpowered aircraft, the maximum flight time is limited by factors such as weather conditions and pilot endurance. Many aircraft types are restricted to daylight hours, while balloons are limited by their supply of lifting gas. The range can be seen as the average ground speed multiplied by the maximum time in the air.

The Airbus A350-900ULR is now the longest range airliner.[citation needed]

Flight dynamics [ edit ]

Flight dynamics is the science of air vehicle orientation and control in three dimensions. The three critical flight dynamics parameters are the angles of rotation around three axes which pass through the vehicle’s center of gravity, known as pitch, roll, and yaw.

Roll is a rotation about the longitudinal axis (equivalent to the rolling or heeling of a ship) giving an up-down movement of the wing tips measured by the roll or bank angle.

Pitch is a rotation about the sideways horizontal axis giving an up-down movement of the aircraft nose measured by the angle of attack.

Yaw is a rotation about the vertical axis giving a side-to-side movement of the nose known as sideslip.

Flight dynamics is concerned with the stability and control of an aircraft’s rotation about each of these axes.

Stability [ edit ]

An aircraft that is unstable tends to diverge from its intended flight path and so is difficult to fly. A very stable aircraft tends to stay on its flight path and is difficult to maneuver. Therefore, it is important for any design to achieve the desired degree of stability. Since the widespread use of digital computers, it is increasingly common for designs to be inherently unstable and rely on computerised control systems to provide artificial stability.

A fixed wing is typically unstable in pitch, roll, and yaw. Pitch and yaw stabilities of conventional fixed wing designs require horizontal and vertical stabilisers,[48][49] which act similarly to the feathers on an arrow.[50] These stabilizing surfaces allow equilibrium of aerodynamic forces and to stabilise the flight dynamics of pitch and yaw.[48][49] They are usually mounted on the tail section (empennage), although in the canard layout, the main aft wing replaces the canard foreplane as pitch stabilizer. Tandem wing and tailless aircraft rely on the same general rule to achieve stability, the aft surface being the stabilising one.

A rotary wing is typically unstable in yaw, requiring a vertical stabiliser.

A balloon is typically very stable in pitch and roll due to the way the payload is slung underneath the center of lift.

Control [ edit ]

Flight control surfaces enable the pilot to control an aircraft’s flight attitude and are usually part of the wing or mounted on, or integral with, the associated stabilizing surface. Their development was a critical advance in the history of aircraft, which had until that point been uncontrollable in flight.

Aerospace engineers develop control systems for a vehicle’s orientation (attitude) about its center of mass. The control systems include actuators, which exert forces in various directions, and generate rotational forces or moments about the aerodynamic center of the aircraft, and thus rotate the aircraft in pitch, roll, or yaw. For example, a pitching moment is a vertical force applied at a distance forward or aft from the aerodynamic center of the aircraft, causing the aircraft to pitch up or down. Control systems are also sometimes used to increase or decrease drag, for example to slow the aircraft to a safe speed for landing.

The two main aerodynamic forces acting on any aircraft are lift supporting it in the air and drag opposing its motion. Control surfaces or other techniques may also be used to affect these forces directly, without inducing any rotation.

Impacts of aircraft use [ edit ]

Aircraft permit long distance, high speed travel and may be a more fuel efficient mode of transportation in some circumstances. Aircraft have environmental and climate impacts beyond fuel efficiency considerations, however. They are also relatively noisy compared to other forms of travel and high altitude aircraft generate contrails, which experimental evidence suggests may alter weather patterns.

Uses for aircraft [ edit ]

Aircraft are produced in several different types optimized for various uses; military aircraft, which includes not just combat types but many types of supporting aircraft, and civil aircraft, which include all non-military types, experimental and model.

Military [ edit ]

A military aircraft is any aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type.[51] Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat:

Combat aircraft are aircraft designed to destroy enemy equipment using its own armament. [51] Combat aircraft divide broadly into fighters and bombers, with several in-between types, such as fighter-bombers and attack aircraft, including attack helicopters.

Combat aircraft divide broadly into fighters and bombers, with several in-between types, such as fighter-bombers and attack aircraft, including attack helicopters. Non-combat aircraft are not designed for combat as their primary function, but may carry weapons for self-defense. Non-combat roles include search and rescue, reconnaissance, observation, transport, training, and aerial refueling. These aircraft are often variants of civil aircraft.

Most military aircraft are powered heavier-than-air types. Other types, such as gliders and balloons, have also been used as military aircraft; for example, balloons were used for observation during the American Civil War and World War I, and military gliders were used during World War II to land troops.

Civil [ edit ]

Civil aircraft divide into commercial and general types, however there are some overlaps.

Commercial aircraft include types designed for scheduled and charter airline flights, carrying passengers, mail and other cargo. The larger passenger-carrying types are the airliners, the largest of which are wide-body aircraft. Some of the smaller types are also used in general aviation, and some of the larger types are used as VIP aircraft.

General aviation is a catch-all covering other kinds of private (where the pilot is not paid for time or expenses) and commercial use, and involving a wide range of aircraft types such as business jets (bizjets), trainers, homebuilt, gliders, warbirds and hot air balloons to name a few. The vast majority of aircraft today are general aviation types.

Experimental [ edit ]

An experimental aircraft is one that has not been fully proven in flight, or that carries a Special Airworthiness Certificate, called an Experimental Certificate in United States parlance. This often implies that the aircraft is testing new aerospace technologies, though the term also refers to amateur-built and kit-built aircraft, many of which are based on proven designs.

A model aircraft, weighing six grams

Model [ edit ]

A model aircraft is a small unmanned type made to fly for fun, for static display, for aerodynamic research or for other purposes. A scale model is a replica of some larger design.

See also [ edit ]

Lists [ edit ]

Topics [ edit ]

References [ edit ]

Gunston, Bill (1987). Jane’s Aerospace Dictionary 1987. London, England: Jane’s Publishing Company Limited. ISBN 978-0-7106-0365-4 .

History [ edit ]

Aircraft Performance – Climb Performance

Climb Performance

If an aircraft is to move, fly, and perform, work must act upon it. Work involves force moving the aircraft. The aircraft acquires mechanical energy when it moves. Mechanical energy comes in two forms: (1) Kinetic Energy (KE), the energy of speed; (2) Potential Energy (PE), the stored energy of position.

Aircraft motion (KE) is described by its velocity (airspeed). Aircraft position (PE) is described by its height (altitude). Both KE and PE are directly proportional to the object’s mass. KE is directly proportional to the square of the object’s velocity (airspeed). PE is directly proportional to the object’s height (altitude). The formulas below summarize these energy relationships:

We sometimes use the terms “power” and “thrust” interchangeably when discussing climb performance. This erroneously implies the terms are synonymous. It is important to distinguish between these terms. Thrust is a force or pressure exerted on an object. Thrust is measured in pounds (lb) or newtons (N). Power, however, is a measurement of the rate of performing work or transferring energy (KE and PE). Power is typically measured in horsepower (hp) or kilowatts (kw). We can think of power as the motion (KE and PE) a force (thrust) creates when exerted on an object over a period of time.

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Positive climb performance occurs when an aircraft gains PE by increasing altitude. Two basic factors, or a combination of the two factors, contribute to positive climb performance in most aircraft:

The aircraft climbs (gains PE) using excess power above that required to maintain level flight, or The aircraft climbs by converting airspeed (KE) to altitude (PE).

As an example of factor 1 above, an aircraft with an engine capable of producing 200 horsepower (at a given altitude) is using only 130 horsepower to maintain level flight at that altitude. This leaves 70 horsepower available to climb. The pilot holds airspeed constant and increases power to perform the climb.

As an example of factor 2, an aircraft is flying level at 120 knots. The pilot leaves the engine power setting constant but applies other control inputs to perform a climb. The climb, sometimes called a zoom climb, converts the airspeed (KE) to altitude (PE); the airspeed decreases to something less than 120 knots as the altitude increases.

There are two primary reasons to evaluate climb performance. First, aircraft must climb over obstacles to avoid hitting them. Second, climbing to higher altitudes can provide better weather, fuel economy, and other benefits. Maximum Angle of Climb (AOC), obtained at V X , may provide climb performance to ensure an aircraft will clear obstacles. Maximum Rate of Climb (ROC), obtained at V Y , provides climb performance to achieve the greatest altitude gain over time. Maximum ROC may not be sufficient to avoid obstacles in some situations, while maximum AOC may be sufficient to avoid the same obstacles. [Figure 11-7]

Angle of Climb (AOC)

AOC is a comparison of altitude gained relative to distance traveled. AOC is the inclination (angle) of the flight path. For maximum AOC performance, a pilot flies the aircraft at V X so as to achieve maximum altitude increase with minimum horizontal travel over the ground. A good use of maximum AOC is when taking off from a short airfield surrounded by high obstacles, such as trees or power lines. The objective is to gain sufficient altitude to clear the obstacle while traveling the least horizontal distance over the surface.

One method to climb (have positive AOC performance) is to have excess thrust available. Essentially, the greater the force that pushes the aircraft upward, the steeper it can climb. Maximum AOC occurs at the airspeed and angle of attack (AOA) combination which allows the maximum excess thrust. The airspeed and AOA combination where excess thrust exists varies amongst aircraft types. As an example, Figure 11-8 provides a comparison between jet and propeller airplanes as to where maximum excess thrust (for maximum AOC) occurs. In a jet, maximum excess thrust normally occurs at the airspeed where the thrust required is at a minimum (approximately L/D MAX ). In a propeller airplane, maximum excess thrust normally occurs at an airspeed below L/D MAX and frequently just above stall speed.

Rate of Climb (ROC)

ROC is a comparison of altitude gained relative to the time needed to reach that altitude. ROC is simply the vertical component of the aircraft’s flight path velocity vector. For maximum ROC performance, a pilot flies the aircraft at VY so as to achieve a maximum gain in altitude over a given period of time.

Maximum ROC expedites a climb to an assigned altitude. This gains the greatest vertical distance over a period of time. For example, in a maximum AOC profile, a certain aircraft takes 30 seconds to reach 1,000 feet AGL, but covers only 3,000 feet over the ground. By comparison, using its maximum ROC profile, the same aircraft climbs to 1,500 feet in 30 seconds but covers 6,000 feet across the ground. Note that both ROC and AOC maximum climb profiles use the aircraft’s maximum throttle setting. Any differences between max ROC and max AOC lie primarily in the velocity (airspeed) and AOA combination the aircraft manual specifies. [Figure 11-7]

ROC performance depends upon excess power. Since climbing is work and power is the rate of performing work, a pilot can increase the climb rate by using any power not used to maintain level flight. Maximum ROC occurs at an airspeed and AOA combination that produces the maximum excess power. Therefore, maximum ROC for a typical jet airplane occurs at an airspeed greater than L/D MAX and at an AOA less than L/D MAX AOA. In contrast, maximum ROC for a typical propeller airplane occurs at an airspeed and AOA combination closer to L/D MAX . [Figure 11-9]

Climb Performance Factors

Since weight, altitude and configuration changes affect excess thrust and power, they also affect climb performance. Climb performance is directly dependent upon the ability to produce either excess thrust or excess power. Earlier in the book it was shown that an increase in weight, an increase in altitude, lowering the landing gear, or lowering the flaps all decrease both excess thrust and excess power for all aircraft. Therefore, maximum AOC and maximum ROC performance decreases under any of these conditions.

Weight has a very pronounced effect on aircraft performance. If weight is added to an aircraft, it must fly at a higher AOA to maintain a given altitude and speed. This increases the induced drag of the wings, as well as the parasite drag of the aircraft. Increased drag means that additional thrust is needed to overcome it, which in turn means that less reserve thrust is available for climbing. Aircraft designers go to great lengths to minimize the weight, since it has such a marked effect on the factors pertaining to performance.

A change in an aircraft’s weight produces a twofold effect on climb performance. First, a change in weight changes the drag and the power required. This alters the reserve power available, which in turn, affects both the climb angle and the climb rate. Secondly, an increase in weight reduces the maximum ROC, but the aircraft must be operated at a higher climb speed to achieve the smaller peak climb rate.

An increase in altitude also increases the power required and decreases the power available. Therefore, the climb performance of an aircraft diminishes with altitude. The speeds for maximum ROC, maximum AOC, and maximum and minimum level flight airspeeds vary with altitude. As altitude is increased, these various speeds finally converge at the absolute ceiling of the aircraft. At the absolute ceiling, there is no excess of power and only one speed allows steady, level flight. Consequently, the absolute ceiling of an aircraft produces zero ROC. The service ceiling is the altitude at which the aircraft is unable to climb at a rate greater than 100 feet per minute (fpm). Usually, these specific performance reference points are provided for the aircraft at a specific design configuration. [Figure 11-10]

The terms “power loading,” “wing loading,” “blade loading,” and “disk loading” are commonly used in reference to performance. Power loading is expressed in pounds per horsepower and is obtained by dividing the total weight of the aircraft by the rated horsepower of the engine. It is a significant factor in an aircraft’s takeoff and climb capabilities. Wing loading is expressed in pounds per square foot and is obtained by dividing the total weight of an airplane in pounds by the wing area (including ailerons) in square feet. It is the airplane’s wing loading that determines the landing speed. Blade loading is expressed in pounds per square foot and is obtained by dividing the total weight of a helicopter by the area of the rotor blades. Blade loading is not to be confused with disk loading, which is the total weight of a helicopter divided by the area of the disk swept by the rotor blades.

Flight Literacy Recommends

Aircraft Performance and Aviation Management

Briefly discuss about the main objectives of Air Traffic Services?

This information is supported by (ivao.aero,2014) says the objectives of the air traffic services shall be to:

Prevent collisions between aircraft

Prevent collisions between aircraft on the manoeuvring area and obstructions on that area

Expedite and maintain an orderly flow of air traffic;

Provide advice and information useful for the safe and efficient conduct of flights

Notify appropriate organizations regarding aircraft in need of search and rescue aid, and assist such organizations as required.

Explain how these objectives affect the aircraft movements and ground movements.

This data is supported by (faa.gov,2014) says Ground controllers must exchange information as necessary for the safe and efficient use of airport runways and movement areas. This may be accomplished via verbal means, flight progress strips, other written information, or automation displays. As a minimum, provide aircraft identification and applicable runway/intersection/taxiway information as follows:

Ground control must notify local control when a departing aircraft has been taxied to a runway other than one previously designated as active.

Ground control must notify local control of any aircraft taxied to an intersection for takeoff. This notification may be accomplished by verbal means or by flight progress strips.

When the runways in use for landing/departing aircraft are not visible from the tower or the aircraft using them are not visible on radar, advise the local/ground controller of the aircraft’s location before releasing the aircraft to the other controller.

Aircraft movements

This information was mentioned in (flyingwithoutfear,2014)

When an aircraft starts its journey it first has to get permission to start its engines from a ground controller, then it will have to get permission to push back from its stand from another ground controller.

Prior to taxi-ing it will be given instructions to take a particular route to the active runway according to its parking gate position and any other aircraft which are using the same runway.

This permission will be given by yet another ground controller. Before the aircraft is given clearance to take off it will have to speak to the controller whose sole job is to give permission to aircraft to take off or land.

When airborne, the pilots will change to another frequency and speak to a departure controller who will give permission for the aircraft to climb to a higher altitude.

Once clear of other departing and arriving traffic the aircraft will transfer to an airways controller who will give permission for the aircraft to climb to its cruising height.

The crew have to ask for permission to leave its cruising height before descending towards its destination. As the aircraft approaches the destination airport, various controllers will be responsible for its safe passage until it lands and parks at its arrival gate.

Analyse the physical appearance of the control tower and its contribution to achieve these objectives and explain about the communication failure procedures.

This data is mentioned in (faa.gov,n.d) says In the past, Airport Traffic Control Tower (ATCT) siting decisions have been significantly influenced by the upper height limits imposed by terminal procedures (TERPS) and controller opinions. Because tower siting (height and location) affects airport safety and construction costs, the FAA had no means to measure quantitatively the improvement in air traffic controller visibility that can be gained by changing the tower height and location on the airport surface, and there was no required minimum criterion for tower height.

This information is supported by (experimentalaircraft,2014)

Preflight -During preflight make sure that you have the correct frequencies with you: check the AIP, NOTAMs, approach and/or enroute charts. Preflight also means that you need to check communications availability for the airports and the route you plan to use. If not sure then a phone call with your destination will solve that problem, also ask if they accept NORDO (No Radio) aircraft.

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Garmin SL40 Aircraft Radio – Radio’s can become complex equipment when they are integrated into Garmin G1000 systems like EFIS. Standalone Icom, Bendix King or Apollo/Garmin radio’s are really easy to control. Having the pilots quick reference manual in your flight bag or with the aircraft documentation or manual can be a big help. It will save the day should you become confused about any function of the radio.

ATC light gun -Some aviation charts depict them: ATC light gun signals. Make sure you know them by heart or carry a copy of their meaning with you. Practice these signals every once in a while.

Frequency change -If contact can not be established after a frequency change, go back to the previous frequency or channel and verify with the controller that you have the correct frequency. This is first thing you must do in this case.

Second radio -If you suspect that your radio has failed and you have a second one, set that frequency in the other radio and try again. When I fly an aircraft with multiple radio’s I plan to use all of them, and during a handover I set the next frequency into the other radio and use that one. This way I always have both radio’s checked and functional. Should I need to switch back, its done within a blink of an eye on the intercom panel.

Squelch setting -A squelch is used to suppress the white noise when no station is transmitting, turn the knob clockwise until the noise just about disappears (on radio’s with an automatic squelch you need to pull or push the volume knob). Sometimes after switching and verifying that you have the correct frequency and that the radio is operating correctly it might be that you are just to far away (or flying too low) for the next station. Its signal strength is just too weak to open the squelch you will hear nothing.

First thing I do is to open up the squelch manually (pull/push the volume knob) and listen to the noise/static and other aircraft and retransmit when able. Chances are that you hear them calling you just above the noise level. By the time you get closer, the signal strength will have improved enough so that you can use the squelch again.

Radio Failure -It will not happen that often but radio’s can fail and having a second on standby will save the day. Should it happen, try pulling the fuse wait a couple of minutes and push it in again. This might reset the radio. Should this fail then and you have only one radio, set 7600 on the transponder and determine if you need to divert to an airport where NORAD aircraft are allowed. It is advisable to call ATC after landing to explain the situation.

Altitude -VHF communications rely on antenna’s to be in line of sight of each other to be able to receive their signals. Should you not hear the other station then climb, if possible, a couple of thousand feet. This will improve the range in which you can contact stations.HF communications rely on radio wave propagation by the Earth’s Ionosphere and line of sight is not so much of an issue here.

Relaying-At times you may find that other, possibly higher flying aircraft, are willing to relay your message to the ground station. Sometimes even without asking, because they can hear you and the ground station and its obvious to them that you can not reach or hear ATC.

Transponder

Aircraft Transponder – The transponder code for lost communications is 7600 in any mode (A/C/S). Setting this code will ring bells in ATC facilities and you will most definately get their attention! Again, make sure to explain the situation after landing.

Diversion – If all else fails and your destination is a controlled airport where radio communications are mandatory, then by all means divert to an airport where you can land without a radio and have your radio checked by a radio shop before you continue on to your final destination. Overflying the signal area before entering the circuit/pattern is a wise decision at that time.

Describe about the visual signals and their use, colours and effects of the markings. Also identify other markings in the manoeuvring area and their use.

This information was mentioned in (tc.gc.ca,2012) says A series of green flashes directed at an aircraft means respectively

in flight on the ground 1. cleared to land; cleared to taxi. 2. return for landing; cleared for take-off. 3. return for landing; cleared to taxi. 4. cleared to land; cleared for take-off.

A steady red light directed at an aircraft means

in flight on the ground 1. give way to other aircraft and continue circling; stop. 2. give way to other aircraft and continue circling; taxi clear of landing area in use. 3. airport unsafe do not land; taxi clear of landing area in use. 4. airport unsafe do not land; stop.

A series of red flashes directed at an aircraft means respectively

in flight on the ground 1. airport unsafe, do not land; taxi clear of landing area in use. 2. give way to other aircraft and continue circling; stop. 3. do not land for time being; return to starting point on airport. 4. you are in prohibited area, alter course; stop.

A steady green light directed at an aircraft means respectively

in flight on the ground 1. cleared to land; cleared to taxi. 2. return for landing; cleared to taxi. 3. return for landing; cleared for take-off. 4. cleared to land; cleared for take-off.

A flashing white light directed at an aircraft on the manoeuvring area of an airportmeans

stop. return to starting point on the airport. cleared to taxi. taxi clear of landing area in use.

Blinking runway lights advises vehicles and pedestrians to

return to the apron. vacate the runways immediately. be aware that an emergency is in progress; continue with caution. be aware that an emergency is in progress; hold your position.

This information is mentioned in (airservicesaustralia,2013)

Colourƒ

Runway markings are white(although yellow taxiway centrelines may lead on,lead off, or cross the runway).

Taxiway markings are yellow.

Markings on aprons and in ramp areas may include other colours(e.g. it is common to mark vehicle roadways in white).

Taxiway marking patterns

ƒIf a marking pattern consists of two or more lines—some of which are solid and

some of which are dashed—these are runway holding position markings.

It is always permissible to cross from the dashed side to the solid side.

ATC permission is always required to cross from the solid side to the dashed side at an aerodrome with an operating control tower.

When instructed to ‘hold short’ always stop before the first solid line of the runway holding point marking as depicted below.

Figure01

Intermediate Holding Positions

Intermediate holding position markings show a holding position between taxiways. Youwill need to hold at these if ATC direct you to hold short of a particular taxiway.

figure02

Aerodrome signs – how to get from here to there safely

Along with aerodrome markings and lights, aerodrome signs are designed to assist you in navigating around an aerodrome.It is essential that you understand the colour coding and meaning of these five types of signs when taxiing on an aerodrome:

1. Location sign:

Identifies the taxiway you are currently located on. It has a yellow inscription on a black background

Figure03

Mandatory instruction sign:

Identifies the entrance to a runway or critical area, and areas prohibited for use by aircraft. It has a white inscription on a red background. You must obtain a clearance from ATC prior to proceeding past this point

Figure04

Direction sign:identifies the designations of taxiways leading out of an intersection along with an arrow indicating the approximate direction of turn needed to align the aircraft on that taxiway. They are located before the intersection, normally on the left side and normally with a location sign. It has a black inscription on a yellow background

figure05

Destination sign:Identifies with arrows the directions to specific destinations on the airfield (e.g. runways, terminals or airport services). It also has a black inscription on a yellow background

figure06

Sign arrays:Grouping of direction signs. Signs are orientated clockwise from left to right. Left turn signs are on the left of the location sign and right turn signs are on the right of the location sign.

Figure07

Aerodrome lighting

There are many different lighting combinations that may exist on some aerodromes, especially where aircraft operations are conducted in the lower visibility ranges. For taxiing operations around airfields, you should remember:

Runway edge lights are white (although on runways fitted with high intensity lighting, the runway edge lights within 600 m from the end of the runway will beyellow.)

Figure08

taxiway edge lights or reflectors are blue

figure09

taxiway centreline lights or reflectors are green

figure10

runway guard lights are flashing yellow lights (either in the pavement or located on the side of the taxiway) and highlight a runway holding point

figure11

High intensity approach lighting (HIAL) is red and white

Figure12

Communication capabilities of the users and the role of tower controller

This information is supported by (faa.gov,2014) sat the FAA’s air traffic controllers ensure the safe and efficient flight for about two million aviation passengers per day – or almost one billion people per year. Air traffic controllers safely manage more than 60 million aircraft annually to their destinations.

The U.S. air traffic controller workforce consists of approximately 15,000 dedicated and well-trained men and women working in air traffic control towers, terminal radar approach control centers, and en route control centers managing 30.2 million square miles of airspace.

Air Traffic Control Tower Controllers Work in the glassed-in towers you see at airports. They manage traffic from the airport to a radius of 3 to 30 miles out. They give pilots taxiing and take off instructions, air traffic clearance, and advice based on their own observations and experience. They provide separation between landing and departing aircraft, transfer control of aircraft to the en route center controllers when the aircraft leave their airspace, and receive control of aircraft on flights coming into their airspace.

Terminal Radar Approach Controllers Work in radar rooms, using terminal radar sensors to assist the aircraft until it reaches the edge of the facility’s airspace, usually about 20 to 50 miles from the airport and up to about 17,000 feet, before handing it off to the En Route Center Controllers

En Route Center Controllers Work in 21 centers across the country, in a location away from the airport. You will never see them during the course of your flight, but they will normally direct your aircraft for the bulk of your ride. Controlling traffic usually at or above 17,000 feet, the typical center has responsibility for more than 100,000 square miles of airspace generally extending over a number of states. These controllers give aircraft instructions, air traffic clearances and advice using radar or manual procedures they keep track of the thousands of planes in the sky at any one time. Due to the radar equipment, they work in semi-darkness and guide aircraft on the scope

Reference

faa.gov, (2014) Chapter 3- Airport Traffic Control- Terminal. [Online] Available at: Accessed on 2nd July 2014 Page

ivao.aero, (2014) Air traffic services. [Online] Available at: Accessed on 2nd July 2014 Page

flyingwithoutfear, (2014) air traffic control. [Online] Available at: Accessed on 2nd July 2014 Page

experimentalaircraft, (2014) Loss of communication. [Online] Available at: Accessed on 2nd July 2014 Page

tc.gc.ca. (2012) 2.0 Visual Signals. [Online] Available at:Accessed on 2nd July 2014 Page

airservicesaustralia, (2013) 6. Aerodrome markings, signs and lights. [Online] Available at:Accessed on 3rd July 2014 Page

faa.gov, (2014) Roles and Responsibilities of Air Traffic Control Facilities. [Online] Available at:Accessed on 3rd July 2014 Page

1

performance of aircraft – Free Essay Example

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The Second World War took place between 1939 and 1945, a time during which many reforms occurred. The nations that directly engaged in the war had to focus on aircraft as a high-performance combat weapon. However, the conclusion of the war in 1945 brought a number of positive improvements to the opportunities in the market. In the earlier pre-war years, the aircraft development rate reached 6000 aircraft a year (Joe, 2015). The era during which the war took place and the period that followed saw an increase in demand. The industry was the only one to develop as other industries failed. The other important factor that one can consider is the increased employment opportunities for citizens. America for instance produced aircraft in specific areas but after the Second World War the industry was nationalized. The players in the industry however faced various challenges, one being complex designs. The other challenge that faced the industry was lack of expertise. The increased production was not in line with man power available at the time proving a challenge. Nationalization of the industry also made it difficult for parts produced to be standardized.

The aircraft manufacturing industry ended up being one of the most progressive industries based on improved designs. Much improvement had not been made on designs the period before start of the war. The engines for instance had to be designed to accommodate the huge aircrafts that were in production. The increased use of aircrafts also demanded new models to be designed to increase numbers transported. An opportunity in expansion came as a result of increased use. It is hence clear that; end of the Second World War played a huge role in improving designs in production (Joe, 2015).

The aircrafts manufactured before the Second World War had low performance as the industry had not yet matured. The military aircraft for instance were designed to fly at certain altitudes similarly to commercial aircraft. The end of the war however pushed engineers to design high performance aircrafts. The engine performance for instance increased after the Second World War due to demands. Commercial planes for instance had to travel for long distances with increased demand. The Second World War in this case played a huge role in improving the overall aircraft industry.

The other factor that was put into consideration was materials used to produce various parts of the aircraft. The engine is the most important part as it helps in propulsion of the airplane. The turbo fan was introduced in a turbo jet in a bid to reduce the amount of fuel used per trip. Metal monocoque, a lighter metal was used to make the outer casing of the airplane due to increased airspeed (Joe, 2015). The interior material such as seats and interior designs used leather and other fabrics. The various improvements in material used were as a result of increased research in the field.

In a period of five years during which the war occurred, various improvements were made on airplanes one being increased production. The period before the war the aviation industry was ranked 41st, although this improved after the war (Joe, 2015). The various car manufacturing industries in United States were converted to airplane manufacturing industries. The new planes in development also had higher performance levels. It became possible for planes to make longer journeys without making a stop.

Reference

Joe, M. (2015). American Bomber Aircraft Development in World War 11. Air Power History, vol. 62, (2), 5-107.

🧩 Advanced Aircraft Performance Essay Example *️⃣ EssayHub

Discuss about the Advanced Aircraft Performance.

Introduction

The concept and phenomenon of the coffin corner has been a concept that has been unaddressed completely with proper and potential solutions. The continued accidents, for larger and commercial flights have been the causes for loss of many lives and through the challenges to the design of the aircraft and the operation of the aircrafts, if they accidentally enter the stall regions.

Discussion

Air France Flight 447 was a passenger flight that travels from Rio de Janeiro to Paris and France via Brazil. This flight was unfortunately crashed on June 1st, 2009. The flight was run and operated by Air France (Rapoport, 2011).

The flight was crashed after it entered an aerodynamic stall and later crashed and fell into Atlantic Ocean and killed the entire people, who aboard the flight, cabin crew, aircrew and total 228 passengers. So, the flight has entered high altitude stall and later impacted ocean.

According to the final report of BEA (Bureau d’Enquetes et d’Analyses pour la Securite de Aviation Civile), the crashing of the aircraft was done, after temporary inconsistencies that happened in between the measurements of airspeed. The inconsistence might have happened likely because of the pilot tubes of the aircraft, which were obstructed because of the ice crystals. This has caused disconnection to the autopilot. Eventually, the crew has responded and reacted incorrectly. It allowed the flight to enter the aerodynamic stall and it was made impossible to recover from it.

Flight 447 flew at the altitude of 35,000 feet, where the relationship between the stall speed of the aircraft and the sound’s speed has got the names called ‘the coffin corner’. The link here is about the shape of the plot of velocity of stall versus. At this point velocity is considered in terms of Mach number, which is the speed relative, the sound’s speed. The link here is only about the shape of plot, but not the meaning of ‘deadly to fly’.

Though there have been many incidents, where the coffin corner incident was occurred by many aircrafts, things were in control and the accidents were resulted because of the other failures and loss control. However, the threat of coffin corner cannot be violated or neglected, which can be serious prone to the aircraft crashes.

Coffin Corner

The concept of coffin corner has other names called Q corner or aerodynamic ceiling.

Figure: Coffin Corner

The concept of coffin corner can be understood as the altitude, at which stall speed of the fast fixed wing aircraft would be equal to the critical match number, at specific G-force loading and gross weight. The flight would be very difficult to stand in stable state at this altitude. Here, the flight has to maintain its minimum and maximum speeds based on two constraints. The minimum speed is the stall speed, so that the flight can be maintained without falling down by losing the altitude. The maximum speed is the critical mach number, which is the maximum number at which the air does not lose lift and travel over the wings, because of the separation of flow and shock waves. If the flight increases more than this speed, the flight starts losing lift and lose altitude, by pitching heavily nose down. Here, the word corner, from the coffin corner refers to the shape of triangle at flight envelope’s top chart, where critical mach number ad stall speed are joined at this point (Jonathan, 2010).

Since, the minimum and maximum speeds of the flight are very well associated with the coffin corner, the concept of coffin corner has become vital and essential to follow for the flights for stable movement, without falling or losing its altitude.

Implications Of Operation Of A Large Craft

High Altitude Upset is an important implication for regulated performance requirement for safer operation of the large crafts. Upset is interpreted as a loss of control, caused from stalling. The flight envelope, at higher altitude, the scope to increase the altitude or change the velocity is restricted greatly. It is caused from the thin air at altitude, which in turn gives two effects (Jonathan, 2010).

The first effect is that the sound becomes will be at higher altitude

The second effect is the stalling speed of the aircraft would be more in such thin air

So, if the flight continues to fly straight and gets levelled at higher subsonic speed, in such increased altitudes and the pilot tries to accelerate in such conditions, the flight moves close enough to sound’s speed and buffeting or sound barrier could be resulted. If the flight is tried to slow down, it would be easier to slow down to reach the stall speed of it. Then also the pilot would start feeling the buffeting, because of the stall effects. Buffet is the huge and dangerous feeling of vibration that could even be reached to 0.2g.

On the other hand, if the pilot attempts to move higher and climb upwards, at higher altitude and subsonic speed, buffeting can be induced, because of the increased attack angle in the thin air. This concept is coffin corner and it is not an exception for the modern flight.

Flight Performance Data

The performance data of the coffin corner experiment is confined largely confined to the aircrafts that are experimental and under test conditions. However, the data shows that the coffin corner has been affected to the commercial flights, such as Aircraft France Flight 447, Aircraft 330 and Pan American Boeing 707 (Jonathan, 2010).

Operations of a Large Aircraft

Figure: Diagram to show the difference found between Pitch angel and Angle of attack

Angle of Attack is considered as an angle found between te chord plane of the wing and the direction of travel of the plane. AoA is an important consideration to determine the stall speed. Pitch angle is considered as the angle in between horizontal and fuselarge centre line. The major difference found between the Pitch angle and AOA is that AOA, which could prevent the stall, cannot be considered as a feel that can be felt by the pilot, as the pilot is dependent on the instruments (Thompson, 2013). But the pilot can have at least some awareness of it, as it could affect the feeling of the pilot. However, Pitch angle cannot be considered as an important parameter to avoid stall.

When Air France 447 is considered, the accident was subjected to extremely detailed and reported by the authorities of France. It was a bizarre accident, in which one of its pilots behaved strangely, so was unaware of what the pilot was doing, because of freezing in panic completely. Unfortunately, the other pilots war unaware of the condition of this pilot and cannot interpret properly for the instrumentation. The result is the vanish of the aircraft and it recorded no Mayday calls, as the flight was landing in mid-Atlantic and no radar records were made available, as it was in the center of the ocean (Jonathan, 2010).

Almost after two years, from the accident, in 2011, recovery of the cockpit voice recorders and light data recorders were found. The accident was caused by the pilot probes, which was caused from the ice crystals. Then the automatic system was disconnected and there were incorrect speed indications shown. Though the captain and co-pilots were re-joined, it was after 1 minute 30 seconds, however, the flight went into stall situation. It fell from 35,000 ft. and within four minutes of time. The flight was perfectly alright with no mechanical or electrical malfunctions.

The Air France 447 accident is not influenced by the fuel consumption. Ideally, the amount of fuel can be as much as possible, however, it would depend on the weight and balance of the flight. Calculation of the fuel requirement for the aircraft depends on various variables and it legally depends on the fuel reserves needed for the regular trip and additional reserves that include diverted travel.

Emergency Response For A Large Aircraft

Airbus gave certain recommendations for changing the Pilot tubes model that are installed in A320, A340 and A330, in September, 2007, because of water ingress problems. However, Air France attempted to decide for replacing the A330’s pilot tubes, only in cases of failure and so it was not airworthiness directive. However, there have been the situations, in 2008, where airspeed data are lost during the flights, because of icing of pilot tubes, though it was temporary. Then Air France started accelerating the replacement programme for the Pilot tube. This program was implemented from 17th June 2009 (Rapoport, 2011). Later, the recovered cockpit voice recordings and recovered flight data recorders were enabled to record the details of what was happened to work out (Thompson, 2013).

Loading Solutions For A Large Aircraft

Loading solutions for aircrafts can now be done with the use of the technology, using software. The loading solution of the fuel is not an issue for the aircrafts addressing now.

According to the training of the pilot, the reaction after approaching the stall, the controls are to be moved or pushed forward. There are two sticks, both sides of the pilot and they act as game controllers. Both the pilots have these two sets of sticks and they move independent to each other. So, non-flying pilot does not the actions performed by the flying pilot (Rapoport, 2011).

The coffin corner and stalls situation have to be well handled to ensure that the aircraft does not get affected by the altitude and control.

Pilots have to be trained sufficiently to control the flight, in high-altitude stall recovery.

The angle of attack has to be inferred indirectly with reference to the speed, towards recognizing the stall and recovery.

The human machine interface has to provide the information that is unambiguous and clear, especially in the fault conditions.

Too many alarms should not bombard the pilots.

Sufficient training has to be provided to the pilots to ensure that they consistently maintain situation awareness. So, they should consistently retain a better mental model of the machine-system’s state.

Since the pilots are not engineers, they by default have to believe the data displayed and presented to them.

All the above solutions have not been addressed, especially, there is disconnect between the anticipation of the design engineer, about the rational and irrational behavior of the pilot and the design of the aircrafts. Eventually, the design aspects cannot be in such conditions that the aircrafts would continue to function and in control, irrespective of the irrational behavior of the pilot operator (Jonathan, 2010). Though many of the situations, handling stalls in coffin corner conditions has been addressed to some extent, there is no complete solution developed and implemented in the overall design and structure of the aircraft even in the modern aircraft design.

So, it cannot be said that the modern aircraft is not susceptible to the coffin corner phenomenon. There is no assurance from the designer till now that there cannot be danger of stalls and coffin corner for the modern aircrafts (Thompson, 2013). Though it is high performance aircraft, it can be concluded that it is not exception for the occurrence of the coffin corner.

Recommendations

Since the larger aircrafts, which have the probability to get into the stall area, through coffin corner, have to be built with the solutions. They are recommended to build the flights to travel within the specified limits. In addition to that, the pilot operators are to be well trained against operating the airplane safely in the coffin corner.

Conclusion

Air France 447 has been suffered from the coffin corner phenomenon. The same phenomenon has been occurred for another aircraft, A330 and Boeing, before its occurrence. Eventually, the phenomenon of coffin corner has come into a wider concept for discussion. The concept of the coffin corner has been experienced in the way that the aircraft enters into the stall and loses its control. When the aircraft enters into the stall, control of the aircraft becomes difficult, because of the challenges to maintain both the minimum and maximum speeds. Eventually, there are many implications resulted in the requirements of the regulated performance implications for the operation of the aircrafts. The performance of the flight becomes uncontrollable, no matter it is a small flight or larger flight. Performance of the flight should be in control, before entering the stall and it should be very well controlled, during the operation of the flight by the operators. The solutions are proposed, based on the experiences gained from the failure of the Air France 447. It is concluded that, since all the implications and challenges of the stalls and coffin cabin phenomenon are unaddressed completely to resolve, the modern larger flights are still susceptible to the phenomenon of coffin corner.

References

Alcock, Charles, (2011). Latest Report on AF447 Crash Calls for New Training and Flight Data. AINonline.

Hradecky, Simon, (2009). Incident: Air France A332 over Atlantic on Nov 30th 2009: Mayday call due to severe turbulence. The Aviation Herald.

Jonathan, (2010). Nova Working on Air France 447 Documentary. Nova. Air France 447.

Ranson, L. (2009). Air France 447 – Two A330 airspeed and altitude incidents under NTSB scrutiny. aviationnewsrelease.

Mindell, David, A. (2015). Our Robots, Ourselves: Robotics and the Myths of Autonomy. Penguin Random House.

N.V. (2011). The Difference Engine: Wild blue coffin corner. The Economist.

Otelli, Jean-Pierre, (2011). Erreurs de Pilotage (in French). Altipresse.

Palmer, Bill (2013). Understanding Air France 447. William Palmer.

Rapoport, R. (2011). The Rio/Paris Crash: Air France 447. Lexographic Press.

Nick, T. R., Neil, (2012). Air France Flight 447: ‘Damn it, we’re going to crash. UK: The Daily Telegraph.

Roberts, R., (2015). David Mindell on Our Robots, Ourselves. EconTalk (Podcast). Library of Economics and Liberty.

Swatton, Peter, J. (2011), Principles of Flight for Pilots, Chichester, UK: Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Thompson, J. (2013). “Safety in Engineering”. Retrieved September 2, 2016, from

Traufetter, Gerald, (2010). Death in the Atlantic: The Last Four Minutes of Air France Flight 447. Spiegel.

Tyson, Peter, (2010). Air France 447, One Year Out. Nova. PBS.

Wise, Jeff, (2009). How Plane Crash Forensics Lead to Safer Aviation. Popular Mechanics.

Aircraft performance and aviation management Essay

Topic: Psychology › Behavior Last updated: August 24, 2019

Aircraft Performance Aviation direction

Contentss Criteria PageMain aims of ATCPT 1:103Aircraft and land motions PT 1:2 03-04Communication failure M:2 05-07Steering country markers D:3 07-13Communication capablenesss PT 2:2 14Mentions 15Briefly discuss about the chief aims of Air Traffic Services?This information is supported by ( ivao.

aero,2014 ) says the aims of the air traffic services shall be to:

Prevent hits between aircraft

Prevent hits between aircraft on the manoeuvring country and obstructors on that country

Expedite and keep an orderly flow of air traffic ;

Provide advice and information useful for the safe and efficient behavior of flights

Notify appropriate organisations sing aircraft in demand of hunt and deliverance assistance, and help such organisations as required.

Explain how these aims affect the aircraft motions and land motions.This information is supported by ( faa.gov,2014 ) says Land accountants must interchange information as necessary for the safe and efficient usage of airdrome tracks and motion countries. This may be accomplished via verbal agencies, flight advancement strips, other written information, or mechanization shows. As a lower limit, supply aircraft designation and applicable runway/intersection/taxiway information as follows:

Land control must advise local control when a departing aircraft has been taxied to a track other than one antecedently designated as active.

Land control must advise local control of any aircraft taxied to an intersection for takeoff. This presentment may be accomplished by verbal agencies or by flight advancement strips.

When the tracks in usage for landing/departing aircraft are non seeable from the tower or the aircraft utilizing them are non seeable on radio detection and ranging, rede the local/ground accountant of the aircraft ‘s location before let go ofing the aircraft to the other accountant.

Aircraft motionsThis information was mentioned in ( flyingwithoutfear,2014 )

When an aircraft starts its journey it foremost has to acquire permission to get down its engines from a land accountant, so it will hold to acquire permission to force back from its base from another land accountant.

Prior to taxi-ing it will be given instructions to take a peculiar path to the active track harmonizing to its parking gate place and any other aircraft which are utilizing the same track.

This permission will be given by yet another land accountant. Before the aircraft is given clearance to take off it will hold to talk to the accountant whose exclusive occupation is to give permission to aircraft to take off or land.

When airborne, the pilots will alter to another frequence and speak to a going accountant who will give permission for the aircraft to mount to a higher height.

Once clear of other going and geting traffic the aircraft will reassign to an airways accountant who will give permission for the aircraft to mount to its cruising tallness.

The crew have to inquire for permission to go forth its cruising tallness before falling towards its finish. As the aircraft approaches the finish airdrome, assorted accountants will be responsible for its safe transition until it lands and parks at its reaching gate.

Analyse the physical visual aspect of the control tower and its part to accomplish these aims andexplainabout the communicating failure processs.This information is mentioned in ( faa.

gov, n.d ) says In the yesteryear, Airport Traffic Control Tower ( ATCT ) locating determinations have been significantly influenced by the upper tallness bounds imposed by terminal processs ( TERPS ) and controller sentiments. Because tower siting ( height and location ) affects airport safety and building costs, the FAA had no agencies to mensurate quantitatively the betterment in air traffic accountant visibleness that can be gained by altering the tower tallness and location on the airdrome surface, and there was no needed minimal standard for tower tallness.This information is supported by ( experimentalaircraft,2014 )Preflight –During preflight make certain that you have the right frequences with you: look into the AIP, NOTAMs, attack and/or enroute charts. Preflight besides means that you need to look into communications handiness for the airdromes and the path you plan to utilize. If non certain so a phone call with your finish will work out that job, besides ask if they accept NORDO ( No Radio ) aircraft.Garmin SL40 Aircraft Radio – Radio ‘s can go complex equipment when they are integrated into Garmin G1000 systems like EFIS. Standalone Icom, Bendix King or Apollo/Garmin wireless ‘s are truly easy to command.

Having the pilots speedy mention manual in your flight bag or with the aircraft certification or manual can be a large aid. It will salvage the twenty-four hours should you go baffled about any map of the wireless.ATC light gun –Some air power charts depict them: ATC light gun signals. Make certain you know them by bosom or transport a transcript of their significance with you. Practice these signals every one time in a piece.Frequency alteration –If contact can non be established after a frequence alteration, travel back to the old frequence or channel and verify with the accountant that you have the right frequence. This is first thing you must make in this instance.Second wireless –If you suspect that your wireless has failed and you have a 2nd one, set that frequence in the other wireless and seek once more.

When I fly an aircraft with multiple wireless ‘s I plan to utilize all of them, and during a handover I set the following frequence into the other wireless and usage that one. This manner I ever have both wireless ‘s checkered and functional. Should I need to exchange back, its done within a wink of an oculus on the intercom panel.Squelch puting –A put-down is used to stamp down the white noise when no station is conveying, turn the boss clockwise until the noise merely about disappears ( on wireless ‘s with an automatic put-down you need to draw or force the volume boss ) . Sometimes after exchanging and verifying that you have the right frequence and that the wireless is runing right it might be that you are merely to far off ( or winging excessively low ) for the following station. Its signal strength is merely excessively weak to open the put-down you will hear nil.

First thing I do is to open up the put-down manually ( pull/push the volume boss ) and listen to the noise/static and other aircraft and retransmit when able. Opportunities are that you hear them naming you merely above the noise degree. By the clip you get closer, the signal strength will hold improved plenty so that you can utilize the put-down once more.Radio Failure –It will non go on that frequently but radio ‘s can neglect and holding a 2nd on standby will salvage the twenty-four hours. Should it go on, seek drawing the fuse wait a twosome of proceedingss and push it in once more.

This might reset the wireless. Should this neglect so and you have merely one wireless, set 7600 on the transponder and find if you need to deviate to an airdrome where NORAD aircraft are allowed. It is advisable to name ATC after set downing to explicate the state of affairs.Altitude –VHF communications rely on aerial ‘s to be in line of sight of each other to be able to have their signals. Should you non hear the other station so ascent, if possible, a twosome of 1000 pess.

This will better the scope in which you can reach stations.HF communications rely on wireless moving ridge extension by the Earth ‘s Ionosphere and line of sight is non so much of an issue here.Relaying-At times you may happen that other, perchance higher winging aircraft, are willing to relay your message to the land station.

Sometimes even without inquiring, because they can hear you and the land station and its obvious to them that you can non make or hear ATC.TransponderAircraft Transponder – The transponder codification for lost communications is 7600 in any manner ( A/C/S ) . Puting this codification will pealing bells in ATC installations and you will most definately acquire their attending! Again, make certain to explicate the state of affairs after set downing.Diversion – If all else fails and your finish is a controlled airdrome where wireless communications are compulsory, so by all agencies divert to an airdrome where you can set down without a wireless and hold your wireless checked by a wireless store before you continue on to your concluding finish. Pass overing the signal country before come ining the circuit/pattern is a wise determination at that clip.Describe about the ocular signals and their usage,colorss and effects of the markers.

Besidesplace other markers in the manoeuvring country and their usage.This information was mentioned in ( tc.gc.ca,2012 ) says A series of green flashes directed at an aircraft means severally

in flight on the land 1. cleared to land ; cleared to taxi. 2. return for landing ; cleared for take-off. 3. return for landing ; cleared to taxi. 4. cleared to land ; cleared for take-off.

A steady ruddy visible radiation directed at an aircraft agencies

in flight on the land 1. give manner to other aircraft and go on circling ; halt. 2. give manner to other aircraft and go on circling ; cab clear of set downing country in usage. 3. airdrome unsafe do non set down ; cab clear of set downing country in usage. 4. airdrome unsafe do non set down ; halt.

A series of ruddy flashes directed at an aircraft means severally

in flight on the land 1. airdrome unsafe, do non set down ; cab clear of set downing country in usage. 2. give manner to other aircraft and go on circling ; halt. 3. make non set down for clip being ; return to get downing point on airdrome. 4. you are in forbidden country, alter class ; halt.

A steady green visible radiation directed at an aircraft means severally

in flight on the land 1. cleared to land ; cleared to taxi. 2. return for landing ; cleared to taxi. 3. return for landing ; cleared for take-off. 4. cleared to land ; cleared for take-off.

A flashing white visible radiation directed at an aircraft on the maneuvering country of an airportmeans

halt. return to get downing point on the airdrome. cleared to taxi. cab clear of set downing country in usage.

Blinking runway visible radiations advises vehicles and walkers to

return to the apron. resign the tracks instantly. be cognizant that an exigency is in advancement ; continue with cautiousness. be cognizant that an exigency is in advancement ; keep your place.

This information is mentioned in ( airservicesaustralia,2013 )Colour?

Runway markers are white ( although xanthous taxi strip centrelines may take on, take off, or traverse the track ) .

Taxiway markers are xanthous.

Markers on aprons and in ramp countries may include other colorss ( e. g. it is common to tag vehicle roadways in white ) .

Taxiway marker forms?If a marker form consists of two or more lines—some of which are solid andsome of which are dashed—these are runway keeping place markers.

It is ever allowable to traverse from the dotted side to the solid side.

ATC permission is ever required to traverse from the solid side to the dotted side at an airport with an operating control tower.

When instructed to ‘hold short’ ever halt before the first solid line of the track keeping point marker as depicted below.

Figure01Intermediate Holding PositionsIntermediate keeping place markers show a keeping place between taxi strips. Youwill need to keep at these if ATC direct you to keep short of a peculiar taxi strip. Aerodrome marks – how to acquire from here to there safelyAlong with aerodrome markers and visible radiations, aerodrome marks are designed to help you in voyaging around an aerodrome.It is indispensable that you understand the coloring material cryptography and significance of these five types of marks when taxiing on an airport:1. Location mark:Identifies the taxi strip you are presently located on.

It has a xanthous lettering on a black background Compulsory direction mark:Identifies the entryway to a track or critical country, and countries prohibited for usage by aircraft. It has a white lettering on a ruddy background. You must obtain a clearance from ATC prior to continuing past this point Figure04Direction mark:identifies the appellations of taxi strips taking out of an intersection along with an pointer bespeaking the approximative way of bend needed to aline the aircraft on that taxi strip. They are located before the intersection, usually on the left side and usually with a location mark.

It has a black lettering on a xanthous background Destination mark:Identifies with pointers the waies to specific finishs on the landing field ( e.g. tracks, terminuss or airport services ) . It besides has a black lettering on a xanthous background Sign arrays:Grouping of way marks.

Signs are orientated clockwise from left to compensate. Left bend marks are on the left of the location mark and right bend marks are on the right of the location mark. Aerodrome lightingThere are many different illuming combinations that may be on some airports, particularly where aircraft operations are conducted in the lower visibleness ranges.

For taxiing operations around landing fields, you should retrieve:

Topics and Well Written Essays – 500 words

School: Topic: Aircraft Performance Lecturer: I. Summary Even though jet engines existed before the World WarII in 1939, these were noted to be used only for laboratory test purposes. The post-World War II therefore served as an important era for jet engine and for that matter jet aircraft manufacturing as there were now sufficient evidence to back the commercial use of the machine (Newhouse, 1982). since 1945 when the aviation industry became transformed with new engines that produced very powerful and thrust performance, and yet coming in compact size, the commercial manufacturing of jets have never been the same (Bayerl & Berkemeier, 2011).

With this said, there are both challenges and opportunities that the industry have faced since the time, some of which are discussed in the case study.II. ProblemThe problem is that high demand for innovation and diversity in the industry calls for enhanced designs, performance, materials, development, and production of new high-performance jet aircrafts which must be made available while taking advantage of industry opportunities whiles overcoming industry challenges. III. Significance of the ProblemFor there to be growth in the industry, there must be a clear balance between customer demand and specification, and manufacturing of jet aircrafts.

It is only when there is this form of balance that consumers and customers can have a feel of value addition in the jet aircraft industry (Travis, Carleton & Lauritsen, 2002). By exploring the opportunities and challenges that are within the industry therefore, a chance is being created for manufacturers to take advantage of what awaits them in the industry while being enlightened on what to avoid through the challenges. IV. Development of Alternative ActionsIndustry opportunity. Advancement in technology, which has aided in the areas of research and development, designing and creation, production, and evaluation of finished products (Frode & Christos, 2005).

Advantages with opportunity . Heightened research in jet engine production due to advancement in technology was the direct result of the three design principles which have been used in the industry since 1965. The three principles are dual-spool layout, variable stators, and the turbofan (Curtis, Rhoades & Waguespack, 2013). Together, these principles have been the basis of achieving high performance.Future utilization of opportunity. The future utilization of the opportunity of technological advancement is expected to focus mainly on durability and portability.

That is, jet aircrafts that are produced in the future are expected to last longer and function within a more spacious limit so that a lot more room can be created for further addition of functionalities. Industry challenge. The need to producing jet engines that gave high thrust with less fuel consumption was a major challenge in the late1940s (Bayerl & Berkemeier, 2011). Today, this challenge has evolved to the issue of sustainable powering of jet aircrafts.Disadvantages with challenge. The challenge with sustainable powering of jet aircrafts have resulted in large environmental impacts of aviation as particulates from aircraft fuels are known to contribute significantly to global warming and climate change (Curtis, Rhoades & Waguespack, 2013).

Overcoming challenge. If the fuel or means used to power jet aircrafts do not contain environmentally harmful particulates, pollution will not be a problem at all. As there has been evolution in the automobile industry with the introduction of electric cars, the identified challenge could be overcome with similar inventions in the jet aircraft industry. V. Recommendation Before the long term ambition of having non-emitting fueling system for jet aircrafts will be reached, the use of emissions trading scheme is strongly recommended so that the use of fuel-efficient and lesser polluting turbofans and turboprops will be encouraged in the industry.

ReferencesBayerl, R & Berkemeier, M. (2011). World Directory of Leisure Aviation 2011-12. Lancaster UK: WDLA UKCurtis, T., Rhoades, D. L. & Waguespack, B. P. 2013). Regional Jet Aircraft Competitiveness: Challenges and Opportunities. World Review of Entrepreneurship, Management and Sustainable Development, 9(3), 1-14Frode, S. & Christos, Z. R. (2005). Aviation radiative forcing in 2000: an update on IPCC. Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 14 (4), 555–561.Newhouse, J. (1982). The Sporty Game: The High-Risk Competitive Business of Making and Selling Commercial Airliners.

New York: Alfred A. Knopf.Travis, D. J., Carleton, A. M. & Lauritsen, R. G. (2002). “Contrails reduce daily temperature range”. Nature 418 (6898): 601.

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